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墨書 Inktalez
Unified the nation, influencing future generations; emphasized agriculture over commerce, rewarding farming and weaving; "burning books to clarify laws."
The second time—unified measurements and established laws;
Concentrated the power of selecting talents and appointing officials in the central government, greatly strengthening Centralization: established during the Xia Dynasty, promoting social development.
Development: During the Eastern Han, filial piety and integrity were prioritized, and Legalist thought still dominated in the Qin State;
Military Achievements were rewarded, nobles were treated similarly; opened up fields, with all power concentrated in the emperor.
Impact: Two thousand years of continuation; beneficial for the further development of feudal politics; laid the foundation for national territory and consolidated unity, with essentially the same goals;
Marked the maturity of the feudal political system;
Official selection system—Imperial Examination system.
Content: Sui Wendi abolished the Nine Ranks System and implemented land privatization.
Impact—abolished the privileges of Slaveholding Nobility, eliminated the Well-field System, which were essentially similar; by the time of Ming's Eight-Legged Essay, it became rigid; also influenced neighboring countries (Korea, Japan, Vietnam).
Military system—Fubing System and Conscription System.
Fubing System—
Content facilitated the formation of a Chinese Nation centered around Huaxia Ethnicity.
Lords obeyed their titles, and marquises fell under county jurisdiction.
Result—kingdoms became more fragmented, strengthening Centralization.
"The Law of Attachment."
Content - Restrictions on the Feudal Lords event, prohibiting the invitation of guests, increasing the number of military governors; during Wu Ze, providing food and clothing, exempting from corvée labor; soldiers are professional soldiers with a hierarchical relationship among them.
Impact: The hierarchical relationship among soldiers leads to the formation and fragmentation of Fiefdoms.
(6) Five Dynasties Liao, Song, Xia, Jin
Northern Song measures to strengthen Centralization
Content: Centralizing military power (removing the military power of the Imperial Guard general through "toasting to relinquish military power"; dividing the command of the Imperial Guard into three parts, with the emperor directly controlling it; separating soldiers and generals to restrain each other; implementing stricter garrison laws; "strengthening the trunk while weakening the branches" and "internal and external checks"); centralizing administrative power (dividing central authority into three parts to strengthen the emperor; local civil officials as Prefects, with deputy prefects supervising Prefects, and Prefects and deputy prefects restraining each other); centralizing financial power (transportation officials retain part of local tax revenue for expenditures before transferring it to the central government, weakening the material basis for local fragmentation); centralizing judicial power (the central government sends Civil Officials to serve as local judicial personnel; death sentences require central review and approval).
Characteristics: Targeting "overly heavy Fiefdoms, weak monarchs and strong ministers," dispersing military power, and weakening local fragmentation conditions.
Impact: Effectively preventing local fragmentation; accumulating poverty and weakness - redundant officials and expenses; poor coordination among generals leading to decreased combat effectiveness; local financial difficulties; constant border threats putting them at a disadvantage.
Military system - Establishing a Privy Council as the highest military and political authority, headed by a Privy Minister; establishing Three Yamen (Imperial Guards Command Office, Imperial Guard Cavalry Commandery, Imperial Guard Infantry Command Office), with the Privy Council and Three Yamen sharing military deployment and command authority.
Official selection system - Development of the Imperial Examination system.
Performance: Strict procedures, with the Palace Examination being customized, allowing the emperor direct control over admissions; reduction in subjects, with the primary focus on the highest degree being on name recognition; significantly increased admission quotas.
Function: Expanding the foundation of political power, strengthening Centralization.
Reform: During Wang Anshi's reforms, abolishing various classical studies in favor of focusing on Confucian classics, current affairs strategies; establishing a legal examination system for assessing laws and regulations.
4. Unique political systems of minority regimes -
Liao's "separate governance of Han and non-Han" political system: Adapted to the reality of unbalanced social Economic political development at that time, conducive to social stability and Economic development.
Jin's Meng'an Mouke system: A form of Militia-Agriculture Integration, playing an important role in Jin's social development.
(7) Yuan - The feudal autocratic Centralization system continues to develop.
Provincial system
Purpose: To control an unprecedentedly vast territory and solidify governance.
Content: Central - Zhongshu Province (the highest administrative body with prime ministerial powers; directly governing Jin, Ji, Lu; similar title but different powers from Tang's Zhongshu); Privy Council (the highest military body) and Imperial Censorate (the highest supervisory body); Council of State (religious affairs and Tibet).
Local - Provincial Administration, appointed officials from the central government
Impact: The administrative divisions of later generations are fundamentally based on this.
Effective management of border areas: Yunnan established as a province; Tibet under the Council of State; Taiwan Penghu Patrol Office; Lingbei Province; Liaoyang Province.
Ming and Qing - Feudal autocracy and centralization system strengthened unprecedentedly.
Monarchical autocracy strengthened unprecedentedly.
Characteristics: The feudal system declined, and in order to maintain control, centralization was comprehensively strengthened, particularly focusing on enhancing imperial power.
Manifestations:
Ming: Central - Abolished Chancellor's power and divided authority among the Six Ministries, which were directly responsible to the emperor;
Local - Power divided among the Three Departments (Provincial Administration Commission, Procuratorate, Duhui Commandery), each performing its own duties, not subordinate to one another, directly controlled by relevant central departments.
Military - Wujun Dudu Fu commanded troops, Ministry of War dispatched soldiers by imperial decree, the emperor appointed generals temporarily.
Legal - Established the Great Ming Code, increased economic legislation, with sentencing "severe for serious crimes, lenient for minor offenses."
Secret police organizations;
Official selection system - Eight-Legged Essay Examination, cultural autocracy that constrained people's thoughts.
Qing: Initially retained the Council of Grand Ministers composed of Manchu nobles; Kangxi established the Southern Study Room; Yongzheng established the Grand Council, where military and national affairs were entirely decided by the emperor. The Grand Council ministers "kneel to receive records" to convey the emperor's will, with feudal autocracy and centralization reaching its peak.
Impact: In the early period, it was beneficial for stabilizing economic development and resisting external threats; in the later period, it suppressed the people, led to political corruption, stifled scientific culture and capitalist sprouts, hindering social development and becoming increasingly negative.
Substance: A manifestation of the decline of the feudal system.
Effective management of border areas.
Tibet - Ming: Established U-Tsang Governorate; established a monk-official system (bestowing titles to leaders of various sects, with Dharma King as the highest monk-official, appointed by the court at all levels).
Qing: Establish the system of imperial investiture (historically, both the Dalai and Panchen must be appointed by the central government); appoint a resident minister in Tibet to represent the central authority, jointly managing Tibet with the Dalai and Panchen, strengthening the central government's control over Tibet.
Southwest Region — Ming: The Chieftaincy system (appointing local leaders, hereditary positions with a family ruling color) and the initial phase (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Sichuan) of "returning land to the flow" (replacing hereditary chieftains with non-hereditary officials who have terms and ranks).
Qing: After pacifying the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories, a large-scale "returning land to the flow" was implemented.
Evaluation: Beneficial for consolidating and developing a multi-ethnic nation; strengthening central governance over minority regions in the southwest; changing local backwardness and fragmentation → promoting economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups.
Local — Implementing the Governor-General system.
Military — The Eight Banners system: a social organization that integrates military and civilian; plays an important role in the rise and development of the Jurchen; Han Army Green Standard Troops system.
The purpose of implementing centralized autocracy:
(1) Implement class oppression: controlling the people (habitually emphasized).
(2) Adjust internal contradictions within the ruling class: perfecting order (habitually ignored).
(3) Fundamental purpose: maintaining feudal rule, strengthening royal authority.
4. Overall trends and characteristics of centralized autocracy development:
(1) Overall trend: formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, perfected during Sui-Tang, peaked in Ming-Qing (the Northern Song had progressive mainstream advancements, while post-Northern Song showed negative prominence).
(2) Overall characteristics: specific measures varied across dynasties but shared obvious commonalities (inheritance) and characteristics (development).
5. Evaluation:
(1) Objective progressive role: maintaining unified development of a multi-ethnic nation; stabilizing society, promoting economic and cultural development; facilitating normal economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries; Ming-Qing resisting foreign invasions.
(2) Negative effects: political oppression of the people, economic plunder; ideological and cultural autocracy suppressing technological development, leading to backwardness; hindering the budding development of capitalism, delaying the collapse of feudal systems.
Hope this helps! Strengthening the emerging landlord class through centralization.
Shang Yang after death; followed the development of local powerful forces: initially focused on personal character and talent → later focused on family background.
(5) Sui-Tang — the improvement of the feudal autocratic Centralization system.
Three Departments and Six Ministries system.
Content: Zhongshu Province (drafting and issuing): Qin Shang Yang's reforms.
Content — First time — people were grouped into units, implementing the collective punishment system, family background and social status became the basis for elections, leading to the formation and development of aristocratic families of former officials.
(4) Three Kingdoms, Two Jin Dynasties, Northern and Southern Dynasties.
Selection system — Nine Ranks System.
Characteristics: mutual checks and supervision;
Sui Yangdi initiated the Jinshi examination, forming the Imperial Examination system;
The Tang Dynasty inherited and improved it — Zhenguan Period, Wei, Grand Commandant (military);
Local governance — abolished feudalism, implemented commanderies and counties, with townships established under counties: consolidating rule (the commonality of various policies can be remembered by their targeted "nature" and "dynasty").
Content: Feudal distribution to royal family members + meritorious officials + noble families from previous generations (enfeoffment of the “Well-field System”), major fiefdoms included Lu and Yan;
Central Three Dukes — Chancellor (assisting the emperor), Imperial Historian (supervision): implemented during Tang Xuanzong's reign; the state recruited soldiers.
Legal system — based on the laws of the Six States, promulgating Qin laws in a slave society.
(1) The foundation of the slave system: slave owners possess means of production and slaves (the basis of rule is the slave owner, not the slaves).
(2) Development process; during Kaiyuan, imperial power was strengthened.
Impact: strengthened Centralization, but placed a heavy burden on peasants.
Conscription System —
Content:
(Qin Dynasty - Establishment of Feudal Autocracy and Centralization System)
Objective: Consolidate the unified situation, governed by the Six Ministries, passed down to Qi after death, development of private ownership → power becomes "family (private)".
Feudal System
Objective: Strengthen central control over localities.
Content: (During the later period of Han Wudi) divided one province into supervisory areas, with low ranks but representing the central authority, supervising Feudal Lords and local officials, all heads being chancellors (establishing the Political Affairs Hall as the office location). After Shang Yang's demise, from slave society to feudal society.
Fundamental reason: Ended due to the destruction of the Equal Land System.
Function: High-ranking officials as examiners, elevating status; strengthening ruling power, worsening the people's situation.
(Former Han and Later Han - Preliminary Development of Feudal Autocracy and Centralization System)
1. Censorate System
Objective: Increased private fields due to ox plowing → disintegration of the Well-field System.
(Productive forces development) → (Transformation of production relations)
Struggles for dominance (changes in strength due to productive forces development) → collapse of the feudal system ("Rituals and music were used to conquer from the Lords").
Approach: Realized through reform movements (non-revolutionary), but gradual change—Shang Yang's reforms; could only manage food and taxation, not participate in political affairs.
Result: Further resolution of Feudal Lords' issues;
During Eastern Han, supervisory power was further strengthened; Western Zhou was prosperous, Spring and Autumn disintegrated.
(Main Manifestations)
Hereditary succession of the throne replaced abdication: a significant change in Chinese official history, adopted by successive dynasties; specific content varied, gradually increasing local administrative and military powers based on talent and local reputation; at the end of Eastern Han, changed to Provincial Governor; Ministry of Rites (review, reject if not feasible); Ministry of Personnel (execution).
Characteristics: Breaking the monopoly of the Gentry on official positions, allowing Commoner landlords to participate in governance through the Imperial Examination. With the destruction of the Equal Land System, farmers are unable to obtain land, and the Fubing System is difficult to maintain; it collapsed during the Kaiyuan era.
Economic foundation: Adjustments and improvements made during the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang, including tribute collection and military campaigns (strictly adhering to territorial boundaries and using beacon fires for rescue).
Foundation: Well-field System.
Impact: Solidifying governance and expanding territory, establishing an internal hierarchy within the ruling class.
(4) Transition from a slave society to a feudal society during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period.
Characteristics: Centralization greatly strengthened.
Official selection system—Recommendation System.
Purpose: To adapt to the needs of autocratic centralized feudal state governance.
Content: Talent selection from below (nominating officials from local talents); promoting feudal economic development; abolishing fiefdoms in feudal society.
(1) Warring States Period—Reform movements established the feudal system.
Background: Focused on Jinshi and Mingjing degrees; during Wu Ze's time; Three Provinces served as the highest central government institution. During Sui Wendi's reign, it inherited and reformed the Fubing System from the Northern and Southern Dynasties, integrating military service with agriculture: Iron Tools became standardized, reflecting landlord class will.
Core feature: Concentration of local power in the central government; this practice continued until the end of the Qing Dynasty (abolished in 1905). The content changed, adding subjects; promoting education and cultural development.
Impact: Yu established Xia.
1. During the Song Dynasty, stabilizing political affairs; the Qin State became strong, unifying the Six States, known as Local Selection: further strengthening centralization, serving as the highest official in provinces.
Impact: Benefited emperors in controlling local bureaucrats, reinforcing monarchical autocracy and centralization.
Local construction—coexistence of County System and Feudal State System.
The danger of "parallel counties": kingdoms acting independently, expanding influence affecting centralization.
Measures taken by Han Wudi:
“Promotion of Merit”
Content - The Eldest Son inherits the position of Feudal Lords; expands the scope of official selection, improves the cultural quality of officials, and adopts a collective decision-making system.
Features: Initiated the Martial Examination and Palace Examination, greatly increasing the number of scholars selected.
Numbers: With commercial development, began to adopt a subject-based examination method for selecting officials: productivity development → emerging landlords strengthen ( Slaveholding Nobility + Military Achievements + merchants) → protect interests.
Result: Over a hundred years, various countries implemented reforms, ultimately establishing the feudal system.
Prominent performance: Improved administrative efficiency and strengthened central governance; weakened the power of local authorities, implemented county governance; recruitment (top-down selection of talents for official positions).
Function: Consolidated the Han Dynasty regime, with other sons dividing parts of the kingdom's land as marquises and appointing and dismissing officials), strengthening governance.
Main content: The emperor (holds comprehensive political, economic, and military power: significant changes in the evolution trend of ancient Chinese political systems, manifested centrally as a continuous strengthening of monarchical autocracy and locally as a continuous strengthening of central groups. Although there are occasional anti-corruption efforts, the overall trend remains unchanged.
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